Of Kind and Cruel Fates Essay Example for Free

Of Kind and Cruel Fates EssayIrony, in its essence, is the humor of contradiction. It is contradiction, in the sense that where we would expect events to lean on one way, events instead in all incorporate the opposite direction. A crude example would be where a string of freak accidents occur at a factory where the manager is exhibit off to his potential clients that his company is accident-free. Irony is humorous because if one saw it with impartiality, one would happen upon it funny. Having a car accident right after a road is improved to avoid nurture accidents, would be funny. To study irony further, one could study an average persons sense of humor. While as a child, he may delight in the curiosities of the environment, in the end he becomes adjusted to seeing it everyday, and eventually his enjoyment of it fades. Humor takes on a different characteristic for him. thither is the slapstick comedy, where he finds the antics of the performers as funny and derisory, and th ere is the situational comedy, where he finds funny ordinary people falling to ridiculous situations. The common thread to this humor is that it attacks at something.Whether it is to ridicule a person behaving bulge of the social norm (as the slapstick), or to ridicule a persons belief or principle that is generally viewed as absurd (the parody), the higher the degree of abuse at the object of humor, the funnier. Irony, then, is humorous in the sense that it attacks something, through its contradiction. As an impartial viewer, we may find funny things that we chouse to be true as envisioned by the ironic set-up, but which is obscured in the minds of those who are involved in the irony.Humor moreover has intrinsic set it seeks to instill to its impartial witnesses, and consequently irony occurs as some way to inform the viewer of a cosmic lesson. We can delve in this further through the study of three stories, Tartuffe, The Princess of Cleves, and Nathan the Wise. There are sever al ironic situations that occur throughout the play Tartuffe. The story revolves around a household scandalized by having its head (the father) entertain and welcome as part of the family a man who openly and vocally shows his displeasure at what he deems as vices borne by the motley members of the family and the house.One of the first ironic situations occurs with the son, Damis, who hides in the room while Tartuffe has a private conversation with his mother, Elmire. His intention is to unmask Tartuffe to his father as a dissembler and get him out of the house (Moliere, 39-46). When he at last sees evidence of the mans scandalous behavior towards his mother and reveals it to his father, not only does his father not believe (owing to the hypocrites good use of words), but has Damis instead kicked out and even encourages Tartuffe to continue his scandalous behavior towards his wife, in order to spite his family (47-51).The humor in the situation concentrate on on how big a fool the father was to believe in Tartuffes virtue, and an even bigger fool not to see the truth when it is right in front of him. This is further stressed in the next ironic situation, where after Orgon (the father) finally realizes the extent of his friends deceit, he tries to tell his mother, who was likewise fooled by the hypocrite. For all his protestations she does not believe him until she sees it herself (Moliere, 68-71). The irony is that where he once ignored the loud protests of his family, like bright his mother does not believe him, even for his loud protests.The final ironic twist, however, turns out for the good as the hypocrite Tartuffe, having been un mask and set his plans for revenge, intrigues on the King and plans to have them all ar peace of minded, only to have him as the object of arrest, as the King was wise to his intrigues (77-80). The play has these alternating reversal of fortunes, and its ironic humor attacks two things that blind faith without reason in o pen Virtue is folly, and that any malice masked in virtue never remains unpunished.A more tragic tale of irony is that of the Princess of Cleves. Introduced to a court as Madam Chartres, she wins the affection of the Prince of Cleves, who inclination to marry her despite the protests of his father she falls, however for someone else, the Duke Nemours (Lafayette, 15-17). The story then centers around him trying to find the opportunity to confess his love, and she, now married, desperately tries to round off his affections while suppressing hers.We do not see the irony unfold until the very end the Princess anguishes over her affection for the Duke throughout her marriage, but following the goal of her husband suddenly she has a change of heart and is convinced that her husband was a far better man than the Duke (101-107). It is only after the husband dies and they finally have an opportunity to be together does she decide not to be with the Duke. The irony here attacks the notion that love borne from adulterous intention will eventually bear fruit.It might have been attack towards the growing acceptance of the public towards the notion of unfaithfulness, (almost every character is involved in an affair with someone else) and their big it idealistic fervor. The Princess of Cleves, despite the best of her intentions, continued to bear her love to someone else, and pined for that other person, and consequently, in her husbands death she realized her folly too late, and chose to suffer the rest of her life in that guilt. Nathan the Wise has such a complicated string of ironies, that one who skims through even the slightest of details would not appreciate the ironies that eventually occur.Originally, the story of the Jewish merchant Nathan centered around the Muslim vanquisher Saladin trying to fool him out of his moneyand this tale has found itself in the pages of Boccaccios Decameron. Nathan answers so skillfully that ironically it was Saladin who was put to shame by his own question and humbled before the Jew (Lessing, 90-97). This story is, however, expanded by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, and this go out between the Egyptian conqueror and the Jew becomes the main theme.The tale then revolves around a Templar, who was pardoned by Saladin for the reason that he resembled the conquerors brother (Lessing, 36) the consequences of his rescue of a Jewish maiden (and subsequent encounter of the grateful surrogate father Nathan), and the intrigues of the Patriarch who would have him either kill Saladin or turn over Nathan, who he found had raised a Christian child to the Jewish faith (the same Jewess he rescued) (37-40). The irony, from an impartial point of view, might have been to some degree absurd.The Templar, in almost the fashion of Oedipus, tries desperately to seek the truth, and unmask what he sees in his prejudice as malice committed by the Jew Nathan (Lessing, 109-127). And, also in the fashion of Oedipus, not only does he discover that the girl he was trying to save (and hope to marry) was his sister, but Saladin who he would have killed had he agreed to the Patriarch, was his uncle after all (165-172). The irony also hits Saladin, as his pardoning the Templar Conrad because he looked like his brother, redounds to the truth that Conrad was his brothers son.While the ironic twist might seem ridiculous to the trained eye, in the sense it fits to the lesson first imparted by Nathan to Saladin that all men are equal before God, regardless of Faith. This is a happier chide at the Medieval sensibility of hostility between Faiths. Irony is humorous, because we find that the contradiction it creates makes sense. We might have felt our sensibilities offended when we saw that the Princess of Cleves did not end up with the Duke Nemours, but the cosmic twist was to show to us that infidelity was wrong.We would have preferred that the Templar should have instead ended up marrying the Jewess, but the irony was there to imp art the lesson that prejudice has, after all, no place in the world. We sometimes do not find ironic circumstances that funny, as if we lived the life of Duke Nemours or became as aghast as the Templar Conrad. But eventually, we will apprise that the contradiction was to impart to us that our plans may go completely the other way, because they may not have been right in the first place. And, the wiser we become to this truth, the more we will realize that irony, though it might strike sad for us, has a reason.The better we accept this, the more we will be prepared to just take a step back, take a view of the bigger picture, and laugh. WORKS CITED Lafayette, Madame de. The Princess of Cleves. New York forecast Gutenberg. 27 Sept. 2008 http//www. gutenberg. org/files/467/467. txt. Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim. Nathan the Wise. New York Page, Curtis. Project Gutenberg. 01 Mar. 2003. http//www. gutenberg. org/dirs/etext03/natws10. txt. Moliere, Jean Baptiste. Tartuffe. New York Project G utenberg. 26 Oct. 2008. http//www. gutenberg. org/files/2027/2027. txt.

Summer Assignment Essay Example for Free

Summer Assignment EssayIB AP atomic number 63an History Summer Assignment Prerequisite for the AP European History class After doing research on Medieval Europe, address the following questions in essay format. Your research can come through books, the internet and Gateways databases (Gale) that you would find under electronic Resources on our webpage. Cite where youre getting your information from.The response for each set of questions should be 300 words in length and should be exceed written. Essays will be turned in on the first day of school. Late papers will not be accepted. Your grade will be based upon completion of the assignment, thorough answer to each question asked and your ability to follow directions. Your responses must be hand written in blue or black ink.1. What were the causes and effects of the Black Death for Europe? accommodate in your discussion how the Black Death spread.2. What were the causes and effects of the Hundred Years War for England and France ? Include Joan of Arc in your discussion.3. What were the causes and effects of the Great Schism on the Catholic Church and Europe? Include conciliarism in your discussion.4. What were Dantes, Petrarchs, Boccaccios and Chaucers contributions to Medieval Europes literature? Include in your discussion their works and the effects on society.5. How did the Holy Roman Empire contrast with the English and French monarchies in Medieval Europe? Include in your discussion Edward III, Charles V and the Great Council.6. How was Italy fragmented in the 14th Century? Include in your discussion the republics, kingdom, dukedom and Papal States that constituted Italy in the 1300s.

Properties of Cartilage Tissue

Properties of gristle TissueChapter 11.1 IntroductionJoint gristle is passing sophisticated and has been optimised by evolution. There bind been considerable query interests related to the cartilage electric cells, chondrocytes. In the last decades these studies made cartilage the first and very boffo tissue engineering treatment. (Brittberg et al. 1994)1.2 Categorization of cartilage tissueCartilage tissue be categorised in three major types by their different biochemical composition and structure of their extracellular matrix (ECM). Elastic cartilage has a few cells, a pocket-size tightness of proteogly piece of asss (PGs), and a relatively high proportion of elastin fibres. It is found in the epiglottis, small laryngeal, the external ear, auditory tube, and the small bronchi, where it is generally required to resist bending forces. Fibrocartilage also contains a small concentration of PGs, scarce far less elastin. The meniscus in the genu joystick is made of fibrocarti laginous tissue. The third and most(prenominal) widespread cartilage in the human body is hyaline. It is resistant to densification or tensile forces due to the net organisation of type II collagen fibres associated with a high concentration of PGs. Hyaline cartilage can be found in the nose, the trachea, bronchi, and synovial joints. In the last menti wizd case, it is termed as articularyyy cartilage, representing a unique type of connective tissue. Its outwards thin layer c overs the articulating joint surfaces and belies a specific structure with unique mechanic properties. These two layers acting as a covering material, is fibricated by the viscous synovial fluid. The joint capsule encloses the entire joint and retains the synovial fluid. (Schulz and Bader, 2006)1.3 Composition of articular cartilageArticular cartilage is composed of chondrocytes and an extracellular matrix that consists of proteoglycans, collagens and water. (Darling and Athanasiou 2005) Chondrocytes offer only between 5% of the tissue sight the remaining 95% creation composed of extracellular matrix (ECM), which is synthesised by the chondrocytes. (Mollenhauer, 2008 Buckwalter et al. 1988) The ECM of articular cartilage consists of closely 60-85% water and dissolved electrolytes. The solid framework is composed of collagens (10-20%), PGs (3-10%), noncollagenous proteins and glycoproteins. (Buckwalter et al. 1997 Buckwalter et al. 1990) In articular cartilage, 95% of collagen in the ECM is comprised of collagen type II fibrils. The rest other(a) collagen types be collagen type IX and XI and a small fraction of types III, VI, dozen and XIV. (Eyre 2002) Type-I collagen stages thick fibres. Type-III variants thin bres. Unlike these two collagens, Type-II collagen which is present in hyaline and elastic cartilages does non form bres, and its very thin brils are disposed as a loose mesh that strongly interacts with the ground substance. (Montes, 1996) This collagen component in articular cartilage provides tensile stiffness and strength to the tissue and opposes the s closelying readiness generated by highly negatively charged glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) of the proteoglycans (PGs). The majority (50-85%) of the overall PG content in this tissue type were presented by large molecule aggrecan. This consist of a protein backbone, the core protein, to which unbranched GAGs side chains of chondroitin sulphate (CS) and keratan sulphate (KS) are covalently attached. ( 1.1) (Watanabe et al. 1998 Schulz and Bader, 2006)1.1. Illustration of the extracellular matrix (ECM) organization of articular cartilage (Left) and the schematic sketches (Right) of the most relevant polysaccharides of proteoglycans (PGs) in articular cartilage. The PGs consist of a strand of hyaluronic acid(HA), to which a core protein is non-covalently attached. On the core protein, glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) much(prenominal) as keratan sulphate (KS) and chondroitin sulfate (CS) are covalently bo und in a bottle brush fashion. (Modified from Schulz and Bader, 2006 and Mow and Wang, 1999)1.4 Low capacity of self-repairThe aneural and avascular nature of articular cartilage, coupled with its low cellularity, contribute to both the modified rate and incomplete nature of the repair process following damage. (Heywood et al., 2004) In addition, the low mitotic potential of chondrocytes in vivo also contributes to its poor powerfulness to undergo self-repair. (Kuroda et al., 2006) Indeed, in experimental studies on vainglorious animals, full-thickness cartilage defects extending into the subchondral bone, have been reported to heal with the formation of fibrous tissue, which contains relatively low amounts of type II collagen and aggrecan. It is also composed of a relatively high content present in type I collagen, not present in normal adult articular cartilage and accordingly exhibits impaired windup(prenominal) integrity. (Hjertquist et al., 1971 Eyre et al., 1992)1.5 Metabo lism of articular cartilageJoint cartilage is supplied with nutrients and type O by the synovial fluid public exposure facilitated by compressive cyclic loading during joint movements as a pumping function. (Mollenhauer, 2008) Chondrocytes are imbedded in ECM. Within synovial joints, oxygen supply to articular chondrocytes is very particular(a). The oxygen tensions are very low varying from around 6% at the joint surface to 1% in the deep layers of healthy articular cartilage. It is divinatory to be even further decreased under pathological conditions, much(prenominal) as osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis. The metabolism of chondrocytes is lar changey glycolytic. Oxygen-dependent energy generated by oxidative phosphorylation is just a minor contributor to the overall energy in chondrocytes. Articular chondrocytes appear to show a so-called negative Pasteur effect, whereby, glycolysis travel as O2 levels drop leading to the fall in ATP and matrix synthesis. (Gibson JS et al ., 2008) A negative Pasteur effect would make chondrocytes particularly liable to suffer a shortage of energy under anoxic conditions. (Lee and Urban, 1997) Changes in O2 tension also have profound effects on cell phenotype, gene expression, and morphology, as well as response to, and production of, cytokines. Condrocytes live in hypoxic environments implies that specic factors are required to control authorized genes that are responsible for glucose metabolism, energy metabolism, pH regulation, and other responses. The most important component of this hypoxic response is mediated by transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1), which is present in most hypoxia inducible genes. (Pfander and Gelse, 2007 Gibson JS et al., 2008) HIF-1a is necessary for anaerobic energy propagation by upregulation of glycolytic enzymes and glucose transporters. (Yudoh et al. 2005) A previous try shows chondrocytes are not able to survive hypoxia in the absence of HIF-1. (Schipani et al. 20 01)Moreover, the matrix turnover in articular cartilage is extremely slow. Proteoglycan turnover is up to 25 yrs. Collagen half-life is estimated to range from several decades up to 400 years. No immune-competent cells (macrophages, T-cells) enter the cartilage tissue. Thus chondrocytes have to take hold themselves against hostile microorganisms, leading to its immunologically privileged. (Mollenhauer, 2008)1.6 windup(prenominal) conditions in vivoIn vivo joint loading can result in high peak robotic stresses (15-20 MPa) that occur over very short durations (1 s) ca utilize cartilage compressive strains of only 1-3%. (Mollenhauer, 2008 Hodge et al., 1986) In contrast, su stain physiological stresses applied to knee joints for 5-30 min can cause compressive strains in certain knee cartilages as high as 40-45%. (Mollenhauer, 2008 Herberhold et al., 1999)A study of the response of articular cartilage from humans to impact load showed that articular cartilage could stick up impact loads of as much as 25 MPa at strain rates from 500 to speed of light0 s-1 without apparent damage. Impact loads exceeding this level caused chondrocyte death or fissure in the hip or knee. (Repo RU and Finlay JB, 1977)Chapter 2 Osteoarthritis and Treatments2.1 Osteoarthritis, diagnosis and classificationMost cartilage defects are due to direct trauma, but whitethorn also occur in avascular necrosis, osteochondritis dissecans, and a variety of cartilage disorders. The defect may be limited to the joint surface (chondral) or involve the underlying bone (osteochondral). (NHS guidance 2006) Articular cartilage defects can progress to osteoarthritis (OA) in approximately patients, which is a major health problem in developed countries. (Kuroda et al. 2006 Schulz and Bader, 2006 Buckwalter, 2002 Cicuttini 1996) Symptoms may include pain, catching, locking and swelling, and may lead to degenerative changes within the joint. (NHS guidance 2006)Arthroscopy has been used as the gold stand ard to confirmed cartilage defects. In a review of 31,516 knee arthroscopies of cartilage injury patients, the incidence of chondral lesions was 63% the incidence of full-thickness articular cartilage lesions with exposed bone were 20% , with 5% of these occurring in patients under 40-years-old. (Marlovits, et al. 2008)Osteoarthritis (OA) severity is commonly graded from radiographic images in accordance with the Kellgren and Lawrence scale Bilateral. (Kellgren and Bier, 1956 Kellgren and Lawrence, 1957) Osteoporosis and erosions which include narrowing of joint space were recorded separately and graded as follows 0 = no changes 1 = doubtful joint space narrowing 2 = minimal change, mostly characterized by osteophytes 3 = moderate change, characterized by multiple osteophytes and/or definite joint space narrowing and 4 = severe change, characterized by marked joint space narrowing with bone-on-bone contact with large osteophytes. (Kellgren and Bier, 1956 Husing et al. 2003) The radi ologic grade of OA was inversely associated with the joint space width (JSW). (Agnesi et al. 2008)MRI is currently the standard system for cartilage evaluation, as it is a non-invasive, non-contact, multi-planar technique capable of producing high resolution, high contrast images in serial contiguous slices and it enables morphological assessment of the cartilage surface, thickness, volume and subchondral bone. The MRI classification of articular chondral defects are as follows 1=Abnormal intrachondral signal with a normal chondral surface 2=Mild surface impairment and/or focal loss of less than 50% of the cartilage thickness 3=Severe surface irregularity with focal loss of 50% to 100% of the cartilage thickness 4=Complete loss of articular cartilage, with exposure of subchondral bone. (Marlovits et al. 2008) Agnesi et al. compared the radiologic grading of OA patients with the joint surface width measurements obtained from MRI images. (Agnesi et al. 2008)2.2 Non-tissue engineerin g treatmentsPain caused by osteoarthritis can be reduced through a number of modes. (Altman et al. 2006) These includeExercise programmes (strength and flexibility) and lifestyle changesMedicationDietary supplementsKnee viscosupplementationGuidelines for viscosupplementationOther injections employment foot orthoticsKnee bracesOther assisted devices (canes and walkers)SurgeryTotal knee replacement is most commonly performed in people over 60 years of age. (NHS guidance, 2006 Altman et al., 2006 Brittberg et al., 1994) Besides that, the most frequently used treatments include the mosaicplasty, marrow stimulation, and autologous condrocyte implantation (ACI). (Steinwachs et al., 2008) Mosaicplasty is an autologous osteochondral briberyation method through which cylindrical periosteum grafts are taken from periphery of the patellofemoral area which bears less weight, and removeed to defective areas. This transplantation can be done with various diameters of grafts. (Haklar et al., 20 08 NHS guidance, 2006) Marrow stimulation methods include arthroscopic surgery to still the surface of the damaged cartilage area microfracture, drilling, abrasion. All marrow stimulation methods base on the penetration of the subchondral bone plate at the bottom of the cartilage defect. The outflowing bone marrow blood contains the mesenchymal stem cells which are stabilised by the clot formation in the defect. These pluripotent stem cells which are able to pick out into fibrochondrocytes, result in fibrocartilage repair with varying amounts of type I, II and III collagen. (Steinwachs et al., 2008)2.3 The tissue engineering treatmentA 1984 study in rabbits reported successful treatment of focal patellar defects with the use of autologous condrocyte implantation (ACI). One year after transplantation, newly formed cartilage-like tissue typically covered about 70 percent of the defect. (Grande et al. 1989) In 1987, Mats Brittber et al. firstly performed ACI in 23 people with deep ca rtilage defects in the knee. (Brittberg et al., 1994) ACI is described as a three locomote modus operandi cartilage cells are taken from a minor load-bearing area on the upper medial femoral condyle of the damaged knee via an arthroscopic procedure, civilized for four to six weeks in a laboratory and then, in open surgery, introduced back into the damaged area as a liquid or mesh-like transplant at last, a periosteal flap sutured in place to secure the transplant. ( 2.1) (Husing et al., 2008) The cell density of the cultivated cell solution is required to be 30 x 106 cells/ml, or 2 x 106 cells per cm2 in a clinical setting today. (Brittberg et al., 2003)Genzyme Biosurgery with its product Carticel was the first company which introduced ACT into the market and is market leader in USA. Carticel is a classic ACT procedure using the periosteal cover. (Husing et al., 2008)Today the periosteum is often replaced by an artificial resorbable cover such as collagen I/III and hyaluronan mem brane, such as ChondroGide or Restore (De Puy, Warzaw, Indiana). (Gooding et al., 2006 Jones and Peterson, 2006) Another new method uses chondrocytes cultured on a three-dimensional, biodegradable sustain. The scaffold, cut to the required size, is fixed into the lesion site with anchoring stitches. This method does not need the cover, thus simplifying the surgery and shorting the surgery time opens up the possibility of arthroscopic surgery instead of open surgery which causes more(prenominal) tissue damage. HYALOGRAFT from Italy is one of the European market leaders. It is a cartilage transposition made of autologous chondrocytes delivered on a biocompatible tridimentsional matrix, entirely composed of a derivative of hyaluronic acid. (Marcacci et al. 2005)2.4 Clinical follow-ups of ACIBrittberg examine the long-term durability of ACI-treated patients, 61 patients were followed for at least five years up to 11 years post-surgery (mean 7.4 years). After two years, 50 out of 61 patients were graded good-excellent. At the five to 11 years follow-up, 51 of the 61 were graded good-excellent. The total failure rate was 16% (10/61) at mean 7.4 years. (Brittberg et al., 2003)Since 1997 the year the FDA approved ACI, this method has been astray performed all over the world, in more than 20 000 patients. It has been reported to be effective inimproving clinical symptoms, such as pain and function. (Wakitani et al., 2008)2.5 Randomised studiesIn 2004, Knutsen et al. studied 80 patients who needed local cartilage repair because of symptomatic lesions on the femoral condyles measuring 2-10cm2. The results showed on that point was no signicant difference in macroscopic or histological results between ACI and microfracture, and that there was no association between the histological ndings and the clinical issuance at the 2-year time point. (Knutsen et al., 2004) In the same series, there were no signicant differences in results at 5 years follow-up. (Knutsen et al., 2007)In another randomised controlled study that compared mosaicplasty with ACI, there was no significant difference in the number of patients who had an excellent or good clinical outcome at 1 year (69% 29/42 and 88% 51/58, respectively). In the subgroup of patients who had repairs to lesions of the medial femoral condyle, significantly more patients who had ACI had an excellent or good outcome (88% 21/24) compared with those who had mosaicplasty (72% 21/29) (p 2.6 The limitation of ACIThe microfracture is a very simple and low-cost procedure whereas ACI costs almost $10 000 per patient. If ACI is not found to be more effective for improving articular cartilage repair than microfracture, the procedure will not be continued. (Wakitani et al., 2008)There are several possible reasons which should be blamed for the limitations of the traditional ACI procedure. The cell source in ACI is the cartilage tissue taken from a minor load-bearing area on the upper medial femoral condyle of the damaged knee via an arthroscopic procedure. However, Wiseman et al. found the chondrocytes isolated from the low loaded area of the knee joint suffice in a distinct manner with the chondrocytes from the high loaded area, which suggests the traditional cell source of ACI may not provide nice mechanical response and may further lead to the insufficient mechanical properties of the repaired tissue. (Wiseman et al. 2003)As cultured in monolayer, chondrocytes undergo a process of dedifferentiation and adopt a more broblast-like morphology, which is accompanied by an increase in proliferation (Glowacki et al., 1983) and an altered phenotype. Type II collagen, the major protein produced by chondrocytes in articular cartilage, are down-regulated culture, while collagen types I and III are increased. (Stocks et al., 2002 Benya et al., 1978) The agregating proteoglycan aggrecan of articular cartilage, is down-regulated during dedifferentiation and replaced by proteoglycans not specic to ca rtilage, such as versican. (Glowacki et al., 1983 Stocks et al., 2002) Therefore, monolayer cultured chondrocytes do not express the true chondrocyte phenotype, and their ability to correct damaged cartilage tissue is impaired. Upon implantation, de secern cells may form a brous tissue expressing collagen type I that does not have the proper mechanical properties, which may lead to degradation and failure of the repair tissue. (Brodkin et al., 2004) Chondrocytes grown in conditions that support their round shape, such as plating in high-density monolayer (Kuettner et al., 1982 Watt, 1988) and sympathiseding in 3-D gels (Benya et al., 1982) can maintain their differentiated phenotype much thirster compared to cells spread in monolayer cultures.Chapter 3 Tissue engineering strategies for articular cartilage3.1 IntroductionAlthough ACI can still be considered to be one of commonly form of repair of cartilage defects, it does have a number of scientific limitations. round of those c an be resolved using a more comprehensive tissue engineered strategy which incorporates cells, scaffold materials and potentially biochemical, biomechanical and/or physical stimulation in a controlled bioreactor environment.3.2 Cell sourcesFor a naturalized ACI approach, chondrocytes are derived from the low loading area and then cultured in a monolayer. However, chondrocytes derived from the low load bearing area of the knee joint respond in a distinct manner with the chondrocytes from the high loaded area. Chondrocytes cultured in monolayer have a dedifferentiation phenomenon (Described in the previous chapter). In addition, the limitation of the transplant volume is always a major problem in autograft to be overcome (Kitaoka et al., 2001). Thus, potential cell sources are widely studied for the emerging improvement of ACI approach.Chondrocytes from immature animals (approximately 1-6 weeks old) have been used widely in tissue engineering studies for their ability to increase ma trix synthesis and to produce better mechanical properties (Darling and Athanasiou, 2005).Kitaoka et al. examined the possibility of using hyaline cartilage of costal cartilage as a substitute to the knee joint articular cartilage. Costal cartilage cells are derived from 8-week-old male SV40 large T-antigen transgenic mice. Three mouse chondrocyte cell lines (MCC-2, MCC-5, and MCC-35) were naturalized using cloning cylinders, which is a kind of mold. These cell lines showed chondrocytic characteristics, including formation of cartilage nodules that could be stained with alcian blue, and mRNA expression for type II collagen, type XI collagen, ALPase, osteopontin, aggrecan, and link protein (Kitaoka et al., 2001).Animal-derived bone marrow cells, in particular from rabbit origin, have shown a highly variable chondrogenic potential (Solchaga et al., 1999). The establishment of some bone marrow stromal cell lines having the ability of diffrentiation to chondrocyte has been reported, as well as some other cell lines established from rat calvaria, mouse c-fos-induced cartilage tumor and mouse embryonic carcinoma, respectively. Each of the cell lines showed chondrocytic phenotypes (Kitaoka et al., 2001).LVEC cells derived from EBs of human embryonic germ cells were reported to be homogenously differentiated into hyaline cartilage. Three dimensional tissue formation is achieved by encapsulating cells in synthetic hydrogels poly (ethylene glycol diacrylate) (PEGDA) followed by incubation in chondrocyte-conditioned medium (for the recipe, please see the paper) (Varghese et al., 2006).Periosteum consists of two layers. Fibroblasts are from the fibrous layer and progenitor cells are from the cambium layer. Progenitor cells are supposed to be able to differentiate into chondrocytes. Emans et al. compared the chondrocyte and the periosteum cell as cell source for autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) on animals. The results turned out that the condrtocytes are much bet ter for ACI procedure (Emans et al., 2006).3.3 ScaffoldsBiomaterial scaffolds provide a critical means of imperative engineered tissue architecture and mechanical properties allow cells attach, grow in and proliferation allow the cell signals travelling through (Freed et al., 2006).In many in vitro or in vivo approaches, cells are grown on biomaterial scaffolds for further research or just for implantation, where new functional tissue is formed, remodelled and integrated into the body.The biomaterials which compose scaffolds are required to execute several properties. At first, the material as a support structure essential possess enough mechanical strength to protect the cells contained in. Secondly, the material must have some bioactivity to accommodate cells for attachment, growth, proliferation and migration. The material should act as a vehicle for gene, protein and oxygen delivery. Furthermore, the material should be biodegradable for the new cartilage to form and replace t he original structure. In this regard, the material should be non-toxic, non-inflammatory active, and also non-immunogenic. Finally, the material should be easy to handle for surgery procedure (Stoop, 2008).3.3.1 Natural materialsCollagen-based biomaterials are widely used in todays clinical practice (for example, haemostasis and cosmetic surgery). Collagen is also be commonly used as main components in tissue engineered skin products. Several commercial autologous chondrocyte transplantation (ACT) products have used collagenous membraneas the replacement for the periosteum to close the defect, such as ChondroGide or Restore (De Puy, Warzaw, Indiana) (Cicuttini et al., 1996 Jones and Peterson, 2006) The .combination of collagen with glycosaminoglycan (GAG) in scaffolds had a positive effect on chondrocyte phenotype. Condrocytes were cultured in porous type I collagen matrices in the presence and absence of covalently attached chondroitin sulfate (CS) up to 14 days in a study (van S usante et al., 2001).Hyaluronic acid is a non-sulphated GAG that makes up a large proportion of cartilage extracellular matrix. In its unadapted form, it has a high biocompatibility (Schulz and Bader, 2007). Matrices composed of hyaluronan have been frequently used as a carrier for chondrocytes. Facchini et al. conrms the hyaluronan derivative scaffold Hyaff 11 as a suitable scaffold both for chondrocytes and mesenchymal stem cells for the treatment of articular cartilage defects in their study. HYALOGRAFT from Italy is one of the European market leaders for ACT. It is a cartilage substitute made of autologous chondrocytes delivered on a biocompatible tridimentsional matrix, entirely composed of a derivative of hyaluronic acid (Marcacci et al., 2005).Fibrin plays a major role in general pique healing and specially during healing of osteochondral defects. Fibrin mucilage is currently used for the fixation of other chondrocyte scaffold constructs in defects. Some investigators used fibrin glues as a matrix, but owing to the exceedingly high concentrations and protein densities involved, the glue impeded rather than facilitated cell invasion and did not support a healing response (Stoop, 2008). Susante et al. found fibrin glue does not offer enough biomechanical support as a three-dimensional scaffold (van Susante et al., 1999). Another study found fibrin and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) hybrid scaffold promotes early chondrogenesis of articular chondrocytes in vitro. They used the natural polymer fibrin to immobilize cells and to provide homogenous cells distribution in PLGA scaffolds (Shaban et al., 2008).Sugar-based natural polymers such as chitosan, alginate and agarose can be formulated as hydrogels and in some cases sponges or pads. Although these materials are extensively used in in vitro research, their role in in vivo cartilage reconstruction is still limited (Stoop, 2008). Alginate possesses a number of suitable properties as a scaffold material for cartilage tissue engineering. The mobility of alginate allows the ability of cells to be distributed throughout the scaffold before the gelling phase. Its well-characterized mechanical properties are suitable for the transmission of mechanical stimuli to cells. Furthermore, it has been proved its ability to reestablish and maintain the differentiated state of chondrocytes during long-term culture (Heywood et al., 2004). Agarose is a clear, thermoreversible hydrogel which has been applied in numerous studies in cartilage tissue engineering. This hydrogel is supportive of the chondrocyte phenotype and allows for the synthesis of a functional extracellular matrix. Agarose is neutrally charged, and forms solid gels at room temperature. The initial strength of the gel is dependent on the rate of gelling, which in turn is dependent on the ambient temperature. Gel strength is also strongly dependent on the concentration of the gel in solution. Basic science studies involving agarose gel f ormation have demonstrated that rapid cooling leads to a decreased, more homogeneous pore size. increase the gel concentration additionally decreases gel pore size and permeability. A number of studies have used agarose for the investigation of chondrocyte growth and response to mechanical stimuli (Ho MMY et al., 2003).3.3.2 man-made materialsPotential synthetic material scaffolds for the tissue engineering of bone or cartilage includePL (Polylactic acid)PGLA (Polyglycolicacid and copolymers)CF-PU-PLLA (Carbonfibre-Polyurethane-Poly(L-lactide)-Graft)CF-Polyester (Polyester-Carbonfibre)PU (Polyurethane)PLLA (Capralactone (Poly-L-Lactide/epsilon-Caprolactone)PLLA-PPD (Poly- L-Lactic Acid and Poly- p-Dioxanol)PVA-H (Polyvinylalcohol-Hydrogel)-TCP (Tricalcium phosphate)CDHA (Calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite) (Haasper et al., 2008)The major advantages of the synthetic polymers are their end flexibility and avoid of disease transmission. Synthetic polymers can be easily processed into h ighly porous 3-dimensional scaffolds, fibres, sheets, blocks or microspheres. However, there are also disadvantages of some synthetic polymers, such as the potential increase in local pH resulting from acidic degradation products, excessive inflammatory responses and poor clearance and chronic inflammation associated with high molecular weight polymer (Stoop, 2008).Poly(glycolic acid) (PGA), poly(lactic acid) (PLA), and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) have been investigated for use as cartilage tissue engineering scaffolds (Cima et al., 1991 Vacanti et al., 1991). Both, in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated these scaffold maintained the chondrocyte phenotype and the production of cartilage-specic extracellular matrix (ECM) (Barnewitz et al., 2006 Kaps et al., 2006). In addition, PLGA is used as a scaffold material for matrix-based autologous chondrocyte transplantation clinically for more than 3 years (Ossendorf et al., 2007).3.4 Biomedical stimulationGrowth factors a re proved to be able to promote the formation of new cartilage tissue in both explants and engineered constructs (Darling and Athanasiou, 2005). Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) can dramatically increase biogenesis level of choncroctyes, especially in the presence of mechanical stimulation (Bonassar et al. 2001 Jin et al. 2003). Transforming growth factor-1 (TGF-1) increases biosynthesis in engineered constructs and also stimulates the cellular proliferation (Blunk et al. 2002 van der Kraan et al. 1992). Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) stimulates cell proliferation (Adolphe et al. 1984) and biosynthesis (Fujimoto et al. 1999) in chondrocytes which were cultured under a variety of conditions.3.5 Mechanical stimulationACI is considered a proper way for the repair of cartilage defect. However, one of the obstacles to the use of autologous chondrocytes is the limited in vitro proliferation rate of these cells.A lot of stimulations have been found to be effective in stimulating cell proliferation and ECM synthesis, including mechanical, electrical, ultrasound (Parvizi et al., 1999 Noriega et al., 2007) and even laser (Torricelli et al., 2001) stimulation.Mechanical forces due to body movement are experienced by articular cartilage every day. These forces include direct compression, tensile and shear forces, or the generation of hydrostatic pressure and electric gradients. Some level of these forces is beneficial to chondrocytes. (Schulz and Bader, 2007 Shieh and Athanasiou, 2007)There are many studies which have described the design of bioreactor systems, which can apply shear forces, perfusion, tension, hydrostatic pressure, static compression, dynamic compression on cartilage explants, monolayer cultured cells or tissue engineered constructs. (Schulz and Bader, 2007)Previous work on these bioreactor systems has demonstrated that chondrocytes are highly mechanosensitive. A summary of the key studies is provided in Table 3.1. Static compression leads to d ecreased levels of sulfate and proline incorporation (Sah et al., 1989 Ragan et al., 1999). Type II collagen and aggrecan gene expression increase transiently, but decrease when exposed to longer durations of static compression (Ragan et al., 1999). In contrast, dynamic compression of cartilage explants stimulates sulfate and proline incorporation, while chondrocytes em bedded in hydrogels produce more matrix and form robust constructs when cyclically compressed. (Lee and Bader, 1997 Mauck et al., 2000)Table 3.1. Influence of the different models of mechanical stimulation on the biochemical response of articular chondrocytes.ReferencesType of m

Perceptions of cultural distance

Perceptions of heathenish distanceAn Evaluation of Close neighbours and distant friends-perceptions of ethnic distanceIntroduction due(p) to managing across cultures happening in enterprises which operate in different countries and different regions, there must be a indisputable issue referred to as ethnical distance. There is a paper on ethnic distance (Chapman, et al., 2007) with a huge amount of research on how cultural distance influence the apprehensiveness amongst managers from Germany, the United Kingdom and Poland. The researchers divided the three nationalities into German/Polish, and UK/Polish as contrasts, and then they interviewed the members of the different nationalities separately to get empirical data. After the qualitative, interpretive analyzing, they have the historical data and found that even though the Polish culture is remarkably different from the German and the British, Poland and the UK perceive themselves as close, whereas Poland perceives Germany as different (Chapman, et al., 2007). In this paper, I try to evaluate the research paper in three main parts an examination of the theoretical framework, a discussion of research methods adopted, and an judging of the wider implications (Sliwa, 2009). The researchers said in the end of paper that they hope their approach may help managers to manage across cultures. I estimate the efficient approach is to watch cultural differences and to try to narrow cultural distance.Theoretical FrameworkFirst of all, the researchers have analyzed Hofstedes flora which atomic number 18 broadly cited in literature relating to transnational origin and international management (Hofstede, 1991). They use cultural dimensions theory to divide the three countries, in order to compare and analyze them clearly and efficiently. However, they found that Hofstedes dimensions are simplications of the research. In my opinion, Hofstedes culture rankings of these three countries are too weak and inappropriat e. The data collected by Hofstede trace back to thirty years ago, which is a detailed behind the times of today (Schneider and Barsoux, 2003). Even though his research involved more(prenominal) than 40 different countries, it was still restricted to one company (IBM), and the interviewees were more or less managers, not normal employees. This made some people (especially in an other(a)(prenominal) multinational corporations) think that the research is not comprehensive and lacks from persuasion. After all, every wide-ranging multinational company has its own corporate culture which would influence the results of managing in different cultures. Hofstedes research is a static research which does not refer to the outline of cultural evaluation and influential aspects of cultural values.Secondly, the researchers adopt Shenkars (2001 523-524) theory about four illusions of cultural distance to support the paper. Conventionally, people think that a German manager faces the same cult ural distance with Polish colleagues in Germany as a Polish manager faces in Poland. This assumption ca apply by illusion of unity is not supported. We can also see that the differences of UK/Polish and differences of German/Polish are symmetrical, notwithstanding more complex and subtle (Chapman, et al., 2007). The researchers mentioned the illusion of causality and cited that fine cultural distances without anticipation could cause bigger problems than those large cultural distances with a forewarning. I agree that the mention and citation do not serve severally other right. The illusion of causality is mainly about interpreting other non-cultural factors which influence the FDI pattern, sequence, and performance (Shankar, 2001 524). Chapman et al (2007) creates a concept called the illusion of neutrality. I think this is a brilliant idea. It is true that when the two countries (e.g. Germany and Poland) get evolved in political dispute or warfare, they can hardly treat each ot her neutrally. As a result, some small cultural differences matter. For other countries (e.g. the UK and Poland), who have no conflict of interests, they can ignore or tolerate the large cultural differences. simply in relation to the illusion of stability, we can find that the cultural distance could not be constant. In other words, the neutral perceptions of cultural distance between the UK and Poland will change over time, as well as the intense perspectives of cultural distance between Germany and Poland.Last but not least, the researchers mainly pore on ruminateing perception, and that is ethnographic in character (Chapman, et al., 2007). For that reason, the concept of psychic distance should be distinguished form cultural distance. When the managers from Germany, the UK, and Poland deal with each other, they perpetually consciously or unconsciously believe in and depend on their own conceptions. The reasons are that they were taught what is right or wrong, what is respons ible or responsible, what is altruistic or materialistic, etc. On this point, the indivisible relationship of our own culture makes us born with an ethnocentric tendency which results in psychic distance.Research approachThe researchers used a qualitative, interpretive research strategy and focused on analyzing the managerial perceptions (Chapman, et al., 2007). In order to discover the opinions of German, British and Polish managers who participated in international business activities, the researchers adopted in-depth interviews to collect data. There were 63 face-to-face interviews, and the respondents were general managers from 12 companies in Germany, the UK and Poland. I think usage of the qualitative methodological approach to study this cultural distance topic is an appropriate way because it is more flexible. The open-ended questions gave these managers more opportunities to say in their own words their genuine feelings about working with their foreign colleagues. The rese archers do not need to anticipate the answers, in that way, they have a chance to use probe (Family Health International, 2009) to encourage the respondents to elaborate on their answers. The transparency (Bryman and Bell, 2007 424) of this qualitative research is satisfying. For instance, it tells us how the people were chosen for interviews, as well as the specific process of qualitative data analysis. To some extent, the problems of abstractedness limit the research. The two contrasts, three countries, twelve companies, 63 face-to-face interviews and unknown age, gender, religion belief, etc. are a bit restricted to represent other settings. Moreover, they employed a snowballing technique (Marschan, 1996), which might neglect some executives who are low-profile. As the authors said in the paper, they use Microsoft Word to deal with the long transcripts to gussy up themes. Sometimes they would inevitably add a few personal conceptions when they organize data. This would cause th e research to become too subjective.Researchers Findings and ConclusionsWhat the researchers have found mainly reveals that the cultural distance among Germany, the UK, and Poland is different on the individual managerial experience level. The relationship between Germany and Poland is close but tense, and the UK and Poland have a relative distant but easy relationship. Therefore, Chapman, et al. (2007) concludes that cultural distance is both created and interpreted by the perceivers, and the creation and interpretation are influenced by experience and history. I think the empirical show written in the paper does not reflect the tight relationship between German managers and Polish managers. The authors considered the influences of the war too much, and subjectively judge that the relationship between Germans and Polish is tense. Besides, the German managers are much more familiar with Polish managers, compared to the British and the Polish. It is interesting that the perceptions of German and British to Polish are quite a similar in the fig.1 and fig. 3 (Chapman, et al., 2007). Their conclusion is a different angle to interpreting the cultural distance. I argue that the interviewee sample the researchers chose cannot be generalized to the other settings (Bryman and Bell, 2007 423). The historical issues could have some impact on the interactions of individuals, but it should be added that historical problems have less influence on the younger generation. With the process of cultural globalisaion and integration of different cultures, cultural distance is reduced remarkably.Implications for individuals involved in cross-cultural managementAs the researchers said in the article, they hoped international business managers because of certain historical circumstances could understand the unfriendliness of others, but not be hurt by it. It is true that the experiences of countries might influence ones attitude when he or she works with foreign colleagues. Theref ore, when a person starts to deal with international business, it is important to understand cultural distance and the influence on behaviors caused by it. The influences will be heavy(p) on the level of individual managerial practice. People always come across various kinds of problems at the time they work in different cultural contexts. It is because people have different world views and modes of thinking because different culture backgrounds. Due to the diversiform modes of thinking, peoples views of the problems are from different angles, the styles and methods of solutions are disparate, inevitably, the setbacks, conflicts, and projects failure are coming aft(prenominal) each insists his own views (Holliday, Hyde, and Kullman, 2004). To avoid the unnecessary conflicts and misunderstandings, the international managers have to identify and appreciate the other members values and faith, and realize that cultural differences have influence on enterprises interior mechanism.Refer enceChapman, M., Mattos, H.G., Clegg, J. and Buckley, P.J. (2007). Close neighbours and distant friends-perceptions of cultural distance. International Business Review, 17(2008), 217-237.Bryman, A. Bell, E. (2007). Business Research Methods 2nd Ed, New York Oxford University Press.Family Health International. (2009). Qualitative Research Methods Overview. Online for sale at http//www.fhi.org/NR/rdonlyres/etl7vogszehu5s4stpzb3tyqlpp7rojv4waq37elpbyei3tgmc4ty6dunbccfzxtaj2rvbaubzmz4f/overview1.pdf Accessed 13 Nov. 2009.Sliwa, M. (2009). Managing Across Cultures. Handout September 2009 ed. Newcastle Newcastle University.Hofestede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations Software of the mind. London McGrw-Hill.Schneider, S.C. and Barsoux, J. (2003). Managing Across Cultures. 2nd ed. Harlow Financial Times Prentice Hall.Shenkar, O. (2001). Cultural distance revisited Towards a more rigorous conceptualization and measurement of cultural differences. Journal of International Business Studi es, 32(3), 519-535 third quarter.Marschan, R. (1996). New structural forms and inter-unit communication in multinationals. The case of Kone elevators. Ph.D. Thesis. capital of Finland Helsinki School of Economics and Business Administration.Holliday, A., Hyde, M. and Kullman, J. (2004). Intercultural communication An Advanced Resource Book. London Routledge press.

The African Identity | History and Concepts

The African Identity History and ConceptsAccording to the Lexicon Webster Dictionary an Identity is referred to as the condition or character that distinguishes a some superstar or a thing (Lexicon Webster, 1981). The main distinguishing conditions or characteristics (the personal identity) that the slaves had were that they were glum and Africans. Africans who were ripped from their homeland and brought into a new world to live under the rule of the white universe (Europeans), who believed that they were inferior and whom they viewed as an oppressor. Question, did that Identity survive this oppression? Did that sense of being a rarified, black, African get diminished by the slave trade? pleasantly, it would name been hard to maintain that identity, but I strongly believed that the specialness of the African people, the strength that made them qualify for the labour required on the plantations, was the same strength they tapped into to hold on to every sense of I am an Afric an. In this paper I would present ways in which they slaves would leave been able to embosom the African Identity and reasons wherefore mevery would think it was lost. Also I would confer the evidence present today to support that this identity survived long enough to exact been transferred from generation to generation and is today, very present in the lives of the offspring of slaves.The slaves had to struggle to hold on to their Identity a struggle that started as they were being compel from their homelands (Clarke, 1995). This struggle continued in the Americas. It was a brutal but not fatal assault of the black African slaves sense of self. They were being forced to subscribe to a new identity but did they really? Or was it just an idea? Although the slave masters restricted all forms or African husbandry from being practised and enforced their purifications, the slaves found creative ways of resisting this. A simple method such as masking it under the practises of the w hites at least(prenominal) to suffer some semblance of it alive was adopted (Saharan Vibe, 2007).Yes it would harbour been hard to maintain identities given that they were punished for doing so. However there are times when they could have interacted without the watchful eye of the slave master catching them (at nights, at church). There was always a defiant few whose bond to the sense of African identity was so strong that even these minimal moments were functiond to resist against the whites by keeping alive any forms of the identity workable and at least head for the hills it on to former(a) generations when they can (Lashington, 2011).There are numerous practises that we engage in today in the Caribbean and the Americas that are deeply rooted in African kitchen-gardening that even we dont realize. These support the fact that the Identity survived and lives today. It was so prominent it was appointed Africanism, the fight of the Africans to keep Africa Alive. This they di d in different cultural Expressions Religion, Music, Dance, Festival, Folk tales, Language, and customs. The extent to which the culture was kept alive was different from island to island because of the time the plantation dodging was started in the particular island and how legion(predicate) slaves were there (Phillip, 2010).I can personally attest to having participate in various expressions of traditional African culture. As a mover I have been privy to learning the Bele dances a native African dance that is usually danced to the music of drums, shack shacks and sticks a totally African combination. The Religion having relatives that actively worship as Spiritual Baptist I was exposed to the Shango and Saraca which was accompanied by the same African instruments. I have witnessed customs such as the placing of black and red or blue Maljo beads on babies when born to screen of the evil spirits and attended many wakes in my short lifetime. I was taught in school of the Anansi stories that originate from Western Africa and other Moral stories. I have been in a su su before and have had many days of eating Ashum around all saints time. If I have experienced and is still experiencing elements of African culture today, how is it that it is said to have not survive the slave trade (Phillip, 2010).The foods we eat withal stems from the African Identity. Examples of this are the ground provisions and sodium chloride fish (though the salt fish is more associated with slavery rather than African culture) but it was passed down. Going to the market early on a Saturday is another trait (Phillip, 2010).To focus on the expression of music to show how strongly some aspects were kept as compared to others. Just as music was used as a form of communion for the slaves during colonialism so it is today in the form of Calypso (especially in Trinidad) as social commentary and Reggae (mainly in Jamaica) is used to protest against forms of oppression. In some islands/colon ies because the African music was not freely allowed there was a dilution with that of the Europeans. The same was for the language hence the amalgamation of English and African to give patois in the British colonies and the French and African to give Creole language in the French colonies. The emergence of these new or modified languages did however play a glacial role in the success of rebellions and resistances that were held in the Caribbean (Take Five, n.d).As a result of the traits of the Africans view that they will one day be free and bribe to the country of origin that has been passed down, we are now experiencing today in the form of reggae music that reeks of the yearning of black people to return to the homeland. Well known reggae artiste Richie Spice in one of his latest albums In the Streets to Africa has two tracks on the album that pay tribute to the African heritage. One such track, Black like tar, where spice sings of being proud to be black and acknowledges Afr ica as the Motherland. Another of his tracks Motherland Calling sung as a chant to strong drumming music, Spice again acknowledges Africa as the motherland and the belief that even today the motherland is still calling Africa is still waiting and one day will welcome all her children grit home (Rastaman Vibrations, n.d).Then there is the Legendary Bob Marley who fought for black or African liberation from oppression. His songs spoke of Liberation and Unity. In the track Zimbabwe he urged the black man to get up and fight for be freedom/liberation and to have rights. The same for Get up stand up another call to get up and fight for our rights and to never give up on that fight. In another of his tracks Buffalo Soldier the words stolen from Africa, brought to America, competitiveness on arrival, fighting for survival recognizes the fact that Africans were forced into slavery and have fought against the oppression of the colonialist systems to keep the African identity alive finishe dout (Rastaman Vibrations, n.d).The powerful message brought on by his songs continues with Marleys song Chant down Babylon. Babylon to Africans or black people symbolizes the spirit of those who enslave, commit genocide, slave labour and grind the poor less advantage peoples of the world. Marley also recognize the need for unity in the world. With this realization there came songs One love and Africa Unite a call to the people of the world to unite for the advancement of all people especially Africans as they did during slavery. Lastly, there is the famous Redemption Song- the song of freedom. A song whose intent is to reassure the people that freedom is possible but that they must free minds before true liberation is realized. This is clear evidence that the same spirit of the African slave to be free and to return to their home land Africa still manifest in the lives of the Black people of the Caribbean and the Americas today.The reasons that many believe that this identity did not survive was because the great attempts of the Europeans to suppress any forms of the culture because of the dehumanization instituted by slavery in the British colonies. These activities distorted the notion of what Africans thought of themselves to be but it did not eradicate it. This was the reason why the slaves rebelled and resisted against the inhumane treatment brought on by the European slave Trade and the cultural domination it was instituting on the Africans (Bolland, 2002).I agree that there are elements or practices that would have been lost but to say generally that the Identity itself was lost is wrong. If it did not survive why then do we here chant of Kumbayas ring from black churches today? Why kids are still taught with Anansi stories in the schools? The answer to these questions is simple because these things were passed down from our ancestors slaves (Saharan Vibe, 2007).Another reason why it is believed that it was virtually impossible for African slaves to have a sense of identity was because it was never really acknowledged and when it was it was misrepresented as the white man was responsible for documentation of it (Clarke, 1995) This wasnt a hap only in the Americas.African history was shaped by external influences for centuries. From the Muslim historians from the eighth to fifteenth centuries to the accounts of European travellers during the age of exploration to the dreadful characterization of Arica as a continent of eternal blackness by German philosopher G.W. Hegel in the nineteenth century. Thus it has been very difficult even in swingy of the decolonization movements of the continent.Continuing along that line, even native writers urged Africans themselves to come to terms with African Identity in relation to the wanton violence that had been imposed through post colonialism and that continues to plague Africans in post colonial times. In a painstaking recreation of how the western world created Africa as a historical c onstruction, from backward, unlike and uncivilized portrayed by Hegel into the twentieth century Europes adoption of these older views (LeFlem, 2008).As a result of instances as these coupled with institutions such as the association system that existed in the colonial plantation days that forced upon the slaves that blacks are inferior to the superior Whites, there was the emergence of a mentality that still lives on that have black people thinking that the white mans country, colour, culture etc is much better than ours (Baker, 2011).It is sometimes very easy when thinking of the African identity to embody it to Caribbean Identity or African American Identity. This is in no way true. If one tries to explain this concept of Caribbean Identity, an apt description of the typical Caribbean person is that he or she is part-African, part-European, part-Asian, part Native American but totally Caribbean to understand this is to understand creative diversity (Midrelief.com, 2007). Again , this shows the survival of the African Identity it was amalgamated with other influences (identities) to form the Caribbean Identity (Midrelief.com, 2007). A similar conceptualization can be concluded for African Americans.An important factor in this quest to determine the survival of the slave Africans identity is to understand that it has been exposed to Globalization. I strongly believed the remaining traits of that identity is being further diminished by this phenomenon. The culture that many fought to keep alive for so many years is becoming more and more obsolete by the broken down barriers in communication and travel and the many advances in technology (Take Five, n.d).ConclusionThough slavery raped us of the authenticity and pureness off the rich African culture that was once the jactitation of any African it was the strength of the African that helped him to keep to the struggle to emancipate himself from the shackles of a colonial legacy and not be captives in that evil system (Take Five, n.d). It is with certainty that I say that the African Identity is very much animate in the lives of many individuals, communities, nations, and continents because it has truly survived the attempts of colonialist to eradicate the sense of Africanism that was kept financial support in the hearts of the African natives throughout the duration of slavery and is still is present in the everyday lives of this generation whether we are aware of it or not. Agreeably the traces of the culture that is present today shows that it could not have been lost. Diluted? It is possible. Hidden in fusions with practices from colonial countries? Yes. But to say that the African Identity was lost because they were not in their homeland is not right (Midrelief.com, 2007). The onus is on us this present generation to keep what has survive to today and/or reformulate with what we learnt or so the culture of our ancestors. We need to always remember how truly a proud, courageous, and intelligent people our African ancestors were, and that we must claim their spirit. All that is left is for us to use it to fully emancipate our minds (Take Five, n.d)

Long and Short Term Causes of WWI :: World War I History

Long and Short Term Causes of WWIThere were several long-term events that led to the outbreak of domain of a function War One. The most prominent parts include nationalism, militarism, imperialism, the Balkan and Morocco crises, and the alliance system. Ironically, these things were either started in response to, or upheld because of, unmatchable of the other factors. The alliance system was one of the resist factors to emerge before the war. Consequentially, the contributions of this system to the beginning of the Great War have to be considered. Although the alliance system was a main cause of the First military personnel War, it arose because of several other factors, and did not cause the war single handedly. Nationalism, the love and support of ones country, has always existed. In this era, however, it was to take part in the creation of one of the most famous wars in history. Since so much pride was devoted to countries, it made the possibilities of peace between past riv als less probable. It also meant that most nations, peculiarly the great powers, would rather fight a war than back down from a rivals diplomatic provocation. In effect, nationalism was also a contributing factor to the alliance system. No country feels comfortable being in a war alone, and with the growing militaries in almost every country, allies provided much comfort. The positive present of militarism, a policy of aggressive military preparedness , in this period of time gave all countries great reason to feel the heavy angle of an oncoming war. Great Britains naval policy (to always be twice as big as the next two largest navies put together), along with the prevailing feeling of war provided countries with a strong reason to try and create an incredibly strong military force. This led to an arms race, which made the impending war seem inevitable. The military planning in some countries also caused an increased fear of war. Since military machines were being developed, eac h country was appointing a general ply of experts. The greatest problem with this was that there was a fear that some chief of staff, in mark to maintain the schedule on his timetable, might force an order of mobilization and thus precipitate war. These two factors also led, in part, to the alliance system. If two or more countries are allied with each other because they have a better chance of defeating their common enemy if war is declared.

AIDS :: Health Medicine Medical HIV Essays

acquired immune deficiency syndromeAIDS, a severe immunological disorder caused by a virus that leaves the victim unable to fight infections. The AIDS epidemic is becoming a severe health menace throughout the world, but particularly in Africa, mainly southeastern Africa. In Battling AIDS in S. Africa, an article from The Chicago Tribune, Pooven Moodleys discusses why AIDS in Africa is a world problem. He states that nearly 1,600 Africans become infected with HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, each day. In 16 countries throughout Africa, the AIDS epidemic affects more than one-tenth of the adult population is infected, according to Peter Piot, the executive conductor of UNAIDS, in a statement made to the Security Council. With these devastating statistics, AIDS is becoming the first health and development issue to be considered a affright to global security, making it a world problem.AIDS is now at the top of the agenda of the organizations that make up the UN and the World Ban k/IMF Development Committee. AIDS in Africa is such a world problem that the U.S. government has decl ard the crisis a threat to U.S. national security (Moodley). The rest of the world will also be affected therefore, the disease will be threatening to other states in no time. This can be blamed on the domino possibleness. According to Moodley, a 1999 White House report stated, As goes Africa, so will India, Southeast Asia, and so on Researchers and health professionals have many theories and opinions as to what caused AIDS to become an out-of-control epidemic. Piot discusses how AIDS is linked to poverty because of the costs of the drugs needed to control the HIV virus. According to Jon Jeters South Africans Criticize Leaders Views on AIDS, an article from The Washington Post, he explains South Africas President Thabo Mbekis views of the HIV virus and AIDS and how his beliefs do not process the fight against AIDS. Mbeki declares that AIDS is not caused by HIV and will not provide life-saving drugs to pregnant women to reduce the risk of mother-to-child infection. President Mbeki believes that the United States and pharmaceutical companies are part of a conspiracy to falsely link HIV and AIDS to promote the sales of antiretroviral drugs (Jeter). The issue of South Africa not trying hard sufficient to stop the spread of AIDS is also exhibited in an article from Village Voice.